General shamanic conceptions of death and the afterlife
In shamanic traditions death is often seen not as a final end, but as a transition to another form of existence. Linda Fitch, a shaman and teacher of energy healing, explains that in shamanism there is no "afterlife", only a continuation of the soul's journey. When we leave our physical bodies, we continue our existence in another form.
Many shamanic cultures share some fundamental conceptions about death and the afterlife:
Everything has a soul or spirit, including humans, animals and natural objects.
There is a spirit world to which the dead go.
The spirit world interacts with the physical world.
Time is often perceived as cyclical, which implies a form of rebirth or reincarnation.
Isa Gucciardi, Ph.D., describes the shamanic view of death thus: "From the most profound shamanic perspective there is no difference between life and death. Death is not, as Western cultures claim, an empty gap with no connection to life... Life and death are woven together and are both part of an inseparable whole."
The nature and journey of the soul
In many shamanic traditions the soul is considered to be composed of several parts. For example, the pre-Christian Sami believed that each body contained two types of spirit:
The "free soul" which moved on to the afterlife.
The "body soul" which remained behind, bound to the family and the resting place.
Shamans often act as psychopomps - guides who accompany the spirits of the dead to the afterlife. Linda Fitch describes the process thus: "Shamans undergo rigorous training to learn the art of accompanying the dead on their 'spirit flight'. The spirit flight is the moment after death when the soul leaves the body and travels to the afterlife. Shamans separate their energetic bodies - or their spirit - from their physical bodies in order to help the dead cross over."
Transmigration of the soul and reincarnation
The concept of the transmigration of the soul or reincarnation is widespread in many shamanic traditions. This is connected to the cyclical perception of time that is often found in these cultures. The idea is that the soul, after death, can be reborn in a new physical form - whether as a human, animal or even a plant.
In some traditions it is believed that the soul can choose its next incarnation, while in others it is seen as part of a larger cosmic order. Some cultures also have notions that the soul may rest in an intermediate state before it is reincarnated.
Norse tradition
The Norse tradition, which was widespread among the Vikings and other Germanic peoples in Scandinavia and Northern Europe, had a rich and complex view of death and the afterlife. The Norse religion shares many elements with shamanic practices, including the belief in the spirit world and the possibility of communication between the living and the dead.
The diversity of the realm of the dead
In Norse belief there was not a single afterlife realm, but several possible destinations for the dead. The best-known include:
Valhalla: Odin's hall for fallen warriors.
Folkvangr: Freyja's realm, where half of those who fell in battle were received.
Hel: The underworld realm ruled by the goddess Hel, for those who died of illness or old age.
Rán's realm: The sea goddess Rán's underwater hall for drowned seafarers.
The burial mound: Some believed that the dead continued to exist in their burial mounds.
It is important to note that these conceptions varied over time and place, and that the sources are often contradictory. As pointed out in a Reddit discussion: "Where you end up when you die as a Norse person probably depends most on where you believe you will end up when you die. There were some core beliefs in the faith that almost everyone would have agreed on, but beyond these there could easily have been some variations regarding which gods have halls in the afterlife and why and how you get there."
Valhalla and the warrior ideal
Valhalla, Odin's hall, is perhaps the best-known aspect of the Norse afterlife. Here came warriors who fell in battle, chosen by Odin's valkyries. In Valhalla they were to feast, fight and prepare for Ragnarök, the end of the world.
This conception reflects the strong warrior ideal in Norse culture. To die in battle was considered the most honourable death, and promised a heroic afterlife. But as mentioned in the Reddit discussion, the picture is more complex: "Some sources say that everyone who dies in battle (even those who do not believe) goes to Valhalla and those who die of old age go to Hel, but then there are stories and poems about people who did not die in battle going to Valhalla."
Hel and other fates
Hel, ruled by the goddess of the same name, was the destination for most who died of illness or old age. Unlike the Christian hell, Hel was not a place of punishment, but rather a grey and misty realm. Some sources describe it as a peaceful, if dull, place.
Other possible fates included Rán's realm for those who drowned at sea, and the belief that some continued to exist in their burial mounds. This last conception may have been connected to ideas about ancestor worship and communication with the dead.
Transmigration of the soul and rebirth
Although reincarnation was not a central part of Norse belief, there are traces of such ideas. For example, some believed that people could be reborn within the same family. This concept is often called "ættarfylgja" or family spirit.
In some sagas we also find stories of people who are reborn or take a new form after death. For example, in Helgakvida Hundingsbana II from the Poetic Edda, where the hero Helgi and his beloved Sigrún are said to have been reborn.
Communication with the dead
An important aspect of Norse practice was the belief that the living could communicate with the dead. This could occur through dreams, visions or special rituals. Seid, a form of Norse magic often associated with Odin and Freyja, included practices for contacting the dead and gaining knowledge from them.
Burial mounds were often seen as places where the living could meet the dead. There are saga accounts of people entering mounds to speak with the dead or retrieve objects from them.
Sami tradition
The Sami tradition, which has survived in various forms among the Sami of Northern Scandinavia and Russia, has a rich shamanic heritage. Sami shamanism, with its deep connection to nature and ancestral spirits, offers a unique perspective on death, the afterlife and the transmigration of the soul.
Mortensnes burial ground outside Nesseby
The nature of the soul
In Sami belief, a person is considered to have several souls or spiritual components. As mentioned earlier, the non-Christian Sami believed in two main types of spirit:
The "free soul" (sáivu): This part of the soul could leave the body during sleep, trance or death. It moved on to the afterlife after death.
The "body soul" (hágu): This part remained bound to the physical body and the family's area after death.
This duality in the nature of the soul provided the basis for complex conceptions of life after death and the possibility of communication between the living and the dead.
Saivo - the Sami afterlife
The Sami concept of the afterlife is often called "saivo". This was not a single, unified realm, but rather a diverse spirit world that existed parallel to the physical world. Saivo was often associated with sacred mountains, lakes or other natural landmarks.
In saivo the dead continued to live in a way that resembled their earthly life, but with greater power and wisdom. They could communicate with the living, especially through the noaidi (the shaman), and could give advice, help and protection to their descendants.
The role of the noaidi
The noaidi, the Sami shaman, played a central role in the interaction between the living and the dead. The noaidi had the ability to travel to saivo, communicate with the dead and other spirits, and bring knowledge and healing back to the community.
An important part of the noaidi's practice was the use of the runebomme (goavddis), a drum decorated with symbols representing various aspects of Sami cosmology. Through the drumming the noaidi could enter a trance state and travel to saivo.
Funeral rituals and burial sites
Sami funeral rituals reflected their belief in the continued existence of the soul and the importance of maintaining good relationships with the dead. As described in the source:
"Before the burial the deceased's body was carefully cleansed and wrapped in reed-covered garments before being laid to rest. In certain regions it was common to adorn the deceased with the harness of a reindeer or a bear. In addition, the deceased were buried with essential weapons and provisions considered necessary for the afterlife, which sheds deep light on the cultural customs of these regions."3
The burial sites were often located near sieidi, sacred places where spirits were believed to gather. These could be islands, large stones or other natural landmarks. The graves were often shallow or covered with stone (so-called cairns) to make it easier for the spirit to leave the body.
Ancestor worship and communication with the dead
The Sami had a strong tradition of ancestor worship. They believed that the dead continued to be an integral part of the community and could influence the lives of the living. As described in the source:
"Even after the burial, people continued to honour their loved ones by bringing offerings such as tobacco or other valued objects to their graves. In cases of prosperity, the sacrifice of a reindeer was considered appropriate. Ancient tradition dictated that before drinking at a feast, the Sami would pour their drink on the ground as an offering to the gods and the spirits of the dead."3
Communication with the dead was not limited to the noaidi. Ordinary people could also experience contact with the dead through dreams or on special occasions. For example, the northern lights were seen as a manifestation of ancestral spirits.
Transmigration of the soul and reincarnation
Ideas about the transmigration of the soul and reincarnation were present in Sami belief, even if they were perhaps not as prominent as in some other shamanic traditions. There was a belief that the soul could take various forms after death.
For example, some believed that the spirits of the dead could manifest as birds or strong winds. There was also a belief that some spirits could return to watch over the reindeer herds for a time before moving on to eternal life.
The concept of naming in Sami culture may also be linked to ideas of reincarnation. It was common to give children names after deceased relatives, which may have been based on a belief that the spirits of ancestors could be reborn in new family members.
Other shamanic traditions
Although we have focused on Norse and Sami tradition, it is worth mentioning some perspectives from other shamanic cultures to give a broader picture of shamanic views of death, the afterlife and the transmigration of the soul.
Siberian shamanism
Siberian shamanism, which encompasses many different ethnic groups, has a rich tradition of complex conceptions of the soul and the afterlife. In many Siberian cultures it is believed that a person has several souls, and that these can have different fates after death.
For example, the Tuvan people believe that a person has three souls: one that remains in the grave, one that travels to the underworld, and one that travels to the heavens. The shaman plays an important role in guiding these souls to their proper place after death.
South American shamanism
In many South American shamanic traditions, especially in the Amazon region, death is seen as a transition rather than an end. For example, the Shipibo people of Peru believe that after death the soul travels to a spirit world called "jati nete" (the true world). Here the soul continues to exist and can communicate with the living through dreams or during ceremonies.
In the Andes the Quechua people have a complex understanding of the afterlife. They believe that the soul undergoes a journey after death, and that the actions of the living can influence this journey. During Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) they celebrate their ancestors and believe that the dead can return to visit the living.
North American indigenous shamanism
Among many North American indigenous peoples there are varied conceptions of death and the afterlife, but many share the belief in a spirit world and the possibility of communication between the living and the dead.
For example, the Lakota people believe in a concept called "Wanagi Tacanku" or "the soul's path", which the soul follows after death. They have complex funeral rituals designed to help the soul on this journey.
The Navajo people believe that the soul undergoes a four-day journey after death, guided by spirits. They have strict taboos surrounding death and the dead, and perform purification rituals for those who have been in contact with the dead.
Modern shamanic perspectives
In modern times there has been a revival of interest in shamanic practices, including perspectives on death and the afterlife. Modern shamans and practitioners often integrate traditional conceptions with newer understandings and personal experiences.
Sandra Ingerman, a renowned modern shaman and author, describes the shamanic view of death thus:
"In shamanism we view death as a transition, not as an end. We believe that the soul continues its journey. Death is just a door through which the soul passes to continue its evolution and growth."
Many modern shamans work with concepts such as "psychopomp" - the practice of guiding souls to the afterlife. They may also offer support to the dying and their families, and help to resolve unfinished matters between the living and the dead.
Scientific perspectives and interdisciplinary research
While shamanic views of death and the afterlife have traditionally been studied within anthropology and religious studies, more recent interdisciplinary research has begun to explore these concepts from various angles.
Neuroscience and altered states of consciousness
Neuroscientific research has begun to investigate the neurophysiological foundations of shamanic trance states and experiences of "travelling" to other worlds. Some of these trance states may also resemble near-death experiences, which may shed light on shamanic conceptions of soul journeys.
Psychology and death anxiety
Psychological research has examined how shamanic perspectives on death can influence people's attitudes towards death and death anxiety. Some studies suggest that cultures with shamanic traditions often have lower levels of death anxiety, possibly due to their belief in the continued existence of the soul and the possibility of communication with the dead.
Palliative care and care of the dying
There is increasing interest in how shamanic perspectives can be integrated into palliative care and care of the dying. Some healthcare workers and therapists are exploring how shamanic practices can help dying patients and their families cope with the transition from life to death.
Ethical considerations and cultural sensitivity
While interest in shamanic perspectives on death and the afterlife is increasing, it is important to be aware of ethical questions related to cultural appropriation and respect for indigenous traditions.
Many indigenous groups have expressed concern about the unauthorised use of their sacred practices and knowledge. It is therefore important that the exploration and application of shamanic concepts is done with deep respect for the original cultures and in consultation with traditional knowledge-bearers where possible.
At the same time, it is important to recognise that shamanic traditions are not static, but have evolved over time and continue to do so. Modern practitioners can contribute to this evolution in ways that both respect the traditions and make them relevant for modern contexts.
Comparison and contrast with other religious perspectives
To gain a deeper understanding of shamanic views of death, the afterlife and the transmigration of the soul, it may be useful to compare them with perspectives from other major religious traditions.
Buddhism
Like many shamanic traditions, Buddhism has a belief in reincarnation. However, the Buddhist goal is to break the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and attain nirvana. This differs from many shamanic traditions where the transmigration of the soul is often seen as a natural and potentially positive process. Buddhism also shares the idea of intermediate states between death and rebirth (bardo in Tibetan Buddhism), which can be reminiscent of shamanic conceptions of the soul's journey after death.
Hinduism
Hinduism, like shamanism, has a belief in the transmigration of the soul (samsara). However, the Hindu concept of karma and its role in determining the next incarnation is often more structured than in many shamanic traditions. Hinduism's belief in atman (the individual soul) and its ultimate unity with Brahman (the universal soul) can be compared to some shamanic ideas about the soul's connection with a greater spiritual reality.
Christianity
Traditional Christianity generally does not have a belief in reincarnation or the transmigration of the soul, which distinguishes it from most shamanic traditions. However, Christianity shares the idea of a life after death, although it is usually conceptualised as an eternal state (heaven or hell) rather than a continued journey or cycle of rebirths. Some aspects of Christian mysticism, such as ideas of spiritual journeys or visions of heavenly realms, may have certain similarities to shamanic experiences.
Islam
Islam, like Christianity, generally teaches a final afterlife (paradise or hell) rather than reincarnation. However, in Islamic mysticism (Sufism) there are ideas of spiritual journeys and communication with the divine that may have certain parallels with shamanic practices. Islam's belief in barzakh, an intermediate state between death and resurrection, can be compared to some shamanic ideas about the soul's journey after death.
Modern applications and relevance
Shamanic perspectives on death, the afterlife and the transmigration of the soul continue to be relevant in modern contexts, both within traditional societies and in broader, global settings.
Therapeutic applications
Some therapists and healers integrate shamanic concepts into their work with grief, loss and existential questions. For example, the idea that the soul continues to exist after death, and that communication with the dead is possible, can provide comfort and meaning for some people who are grieving. Psychopomp work, or the practice of guiding souls, has been adapted to help dying patients and their families with the transition from life to death. Some hospice programmes have begun to incorporate elements of shamanic practice into their approach to care of the dying.
Ecological awareness
Shamanic perspectives on the nature of the soul and its connection with nature have become relevant in discussions of ecological awareness and environmental protection. The idea that everything in nature has a soul or spirit can promote a more respectful and sustainable approach to the environment.
Personal and spiritual development
Many people find shamanic ideas about the soul's journey and the possibility of growth and transformation after death meaningful in their personal and spiritual development. Concepts such as soul journeys and communication with the spirit world are explored in various forms of modern spiritual practice.
Interdisciplinary research
Shamanic perspectives on consciousness, death and the afterlife have inspired interdisciplinary research in fields such as consciousness studies, neuroscience and psychology. For example, studies of near-death experiences and altered states of consciousness have often drawn parallels to shamanic experiences and concepts.
Challenges and controversies
While shamanic perspectives on death, the afterlife and the transmigration of the soul continue to fascinate and inspire, they also face challenges and controversies in modern contexts.
Scientific scepticism
From a strictly scientific perspective, many shamanic ideas about the soul, the afterlife and the transmigration of the soul may seem incompatible with modern scientific understanding. Critics argue that these ideas lack empirical evidence and may be the result of wishful thinking or cultural conditioning. Proponents of shamanic perspectives, in turn, argue that these experiences and concepts operate on a plane that is not necessarily accessible to conventional scientific methods, and that they represent important aspects of human experience and consciousness that deserve serious exploration.
Cultural appropriation
As mentioned earlier, cultural appropriation is a significant concern. When shamanic practices and concepts are taken out of their original cultural context and adapted for a Western audience, important aspects can be lost or misunderstood. This can lead to superficial or erroneous interpretations of deep spiritual traditions.
Religious opposition
In some parts of the world, traditional shamanic practices face opposition from dominant religious groups. For example, Christian missionaries in some areas have actively tried to suppress shamanic practices, regarding them as "pagan" or "superstitious".
Future perspectives
Despite the challenges, shamanic perspectives on death, the afterlife and the transmigration of the soul continue to be relevant and fascinating for many people in the 21st century. The future of these traditions and concepts may involve several interesting developments.
Integration with modern science
There is growing interest in exploring shamanic concepts and practices through the lens of modern science, especially in fields such as neuroscience, psychology and consciousness studies. This integration may lead to new insights and understandings of human consciousness and experience.
Interdisciplinary dialogue
There is potential for increased dialogue between shamanic traditions and other fields, including medicine, psychology, philosophy and environmental science. This dialogue may lead to innovative approaches to health, mental wellbeing and ecological awareness.
Preservation and revitalisation
Efforts are underway to preserve and revitalise traditional shamanic knowledge and practices, especially in indigenous communities. This work can help ensure that these rich traditions survive and continue to develop in modern contexts.
New forms of spiritual practice
Shamanic concepts and practices continue to inspire new forms of spiritual exploration and practice. This may lead to innovative syntheses of traditional shamanic ideas with modern spiritual and philosophical perspectives.
Shamanic views of death, the afterlife and the transmigration of the soul represent some of humanity's oldest and most enduring attempts to understand and give meaning to the great mysteries of life. From the complex cosmologies of Norse and Sami tradition to the diverse perspectives from other shamanic cultures around the world, we see a rich tapestry of ideas and practices that continue to fascinate and inspire. These traditions offer an alternative perspective on death and existence, one that views death not as a final end, but as a transition and a part of a larger cycle of existence. They emphasise the connection between all things - living and dead, humans and nature, the physical and the spiritual. In a time marked by rapid technological progress and global challenges, shamanic perspectives can offer valuable insights. They remind us of our deep connection with nature, the importance of balance and harmony, and the possibility of transformation and growth even in the face of death. At the same time, it is important to approach these traditions with respect and cultural sensitivity. To recognise the deep wisdom in these ancient practices does not necessarily mean adopting them uncritically, but rather engaging in respectful dialogue and exploration. As we continue to explore the limits of human consciousness and existence, shamanic perspectives on death, the afterlife and the transmigration of the soul may continue to offer valuable insights and inspiration. They remind us that there is still much to learn about the great mysteries of life and death, and that our understanding of reality may be broader and deeper than we often assume in our modern world.
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